Atom forming to a compound data

People enjoy getting together to discuss things, whether it is how your favorite sports team is doing, what the best new movie is, the current politics, or any number of other topics. Often the question is raised about who is right and who is wrong. If the football game is to be played this coming weekend, all we can do is offer opinions as to its outcome. The game has not been played yet, so we don’t know who will actually win.

Picture of ancient Greek philosophers

The ancient Greek philosophers did a lot of discussing, with part of their conversations concerning the physical world and its composition. There were different opinions about what made up matter. Some felt one thing was true while others believed another set of ideas. Since these scholars did not have laboratories and had not developed the idea of the experiment, they were left to debate. Whoever could offer the best argument was considered right. However, often the best argument had little to do with reality.

Picture of a sandy beach

Figure 1. Into how small of pieces can you divide a grain of sand?

One of the on-going debates had to do with sand. The question posed was: into how small of pieces can you divide a grain of sand? The prevailing thought at the time, pushed by Aristotle, was that the grain of sand could be divided indefinitely, that you could always get a smaller particle by dividing a larger one and there was no limit to how small the resulting particle could be.

Since Aristotle was such an influential philosopher, very few people disagreed with him. However, there were some philosophers who believed that there was a limit to how small a grain of sand could be divided. One of these philosophers was Democritus (~460-~370 B.C.), often referred to as the “laughing philosopher” because of his emphasis on cheerfulness. He taught that there were substances called atoms and that these atoms made up all material things. The atoms were unchangeable, indestructible, and always existed.

Figure 2. Democritus.

The word “ atom ” comes from the Greek atomos and means “indivisible.” The atomists of the time (Democritus being one of the leading atomists) believed there were two realities that made up the physical world: atoms and void. There was an infinite number of atoms, but different types of atoms had different sizes and shapes. The void was the empty space in which the atoms moved and collided with one another. When these atoms collided with one another, they might repel each other or they might connect in clusters, held together by tiny hooks and barbs on the surface of the atoms.

Aristotle disagreed with Democritus and offered his own idea of the composition of matter. According to Aristotle, everything was composed of four elements: earth, air, fire, and water. The theory of Democritus explained things better, but Aristotle was more influential, so his ideas prevailed. We had to wait almost two thousand years before scientists came around to seeing the atom as Democritus did.

How right was Democritus?

It is very interesting that Democritus had the basic idea of atoms, even though he had no experimental evidence to support his thinking. We now know more about how atoms hold together in “clusters” (compounds), but the basic concept existed over two thousand years ago. We also know that atoms can be further subdivided, but there is still a lower limit to how small we can break up that grain of sand.

Summary

Practice

Use the link below to answer the following questions:

  1. Who influenced the thinking of Democritus?
  2. Who were the atomists?
  3. How did Democritus explain how we saw objects?
  4. What type of atom did Democritus believe the soul was composed of?

Review

  1. How did the ancient Greek philosophers spend their time?
  2. What approach did they not have for studying nature?
  3. Who was the most influential philosopher of that time?
  4. What was the major contribution Democritus made to the thinking of his day?
  5. List characteristics of atoms according to Democritus.

Glossary

philosopher: People who do a lot of discussing and debate, with part of their conversations concerning the physical world and its composition.

atom: The philosopher Democritus (~460-~370 B.C.), taught that there were substances called atoms and that these atoms made up all material things. The atoms were unchangeable, indestructible, and always existed.

Conservation of Mass

Learning Objectives

State the law of conservation of mass.

Have you ever lost a screw?

Screws and bolts demonstrate conservation of mass

The following situation happens all too often. You have taken apart a piece of equipment to clean it up. When you put the equipment back together, somehow you have an extra screw or two. Or you find out that a screw is missing that was a part of the original equipment. In either case, you know something is wrong. You expect to end up with the same amount of material that you started with, not with more or less than what you had originally.

Law of Conservation of Mass

By the late 1700s, chemists accepted the definition of an element as a substance that cannot be broken down into a simpler substance by ordinary chemical means. It was also clear that elements combine with one another to form more complex substances called compounds. The chemical and physical properties of these compounds are different than the properties of the elements from which they were formed. There were questions about the details of these processes.

In the 1790s, a greater emphasis began to be placed on the quantitative analysis of chemical reactions. Accurate and reproducible measurements of the masses of reacting elements and the compounds they form led to the formulation of several basic laws . One of these is called the law of conservation of mass , which states that during a chemical reaction, the total mass of the products must be equal to the total mass of the reactants . In other words, mass cannot be created or destroyed during a chemical reaction, but is always conserved.

As an example, consider the reaction between silver nitrate and sodium chloride. These two compounds will dissolve in water to form silver chloride and sodium nitrate. The silver chloride does not dissolve in water, so it forms a solid that we can filter off. When we evaporate the water, we can recover the sodium nitrate formed. If we react 58.5 grams of sodium chloride with 169.9 grams of silver nitrate, we start with 228.4 grams of materials. After the reaction is complete and the materials separated, we find that we have formed 143.4 grams of silver chloride and 85.0 grams of sodium nitrate, giving us a total mass of 228.4 grams for the products. So, the total mass of reactants equals the total mass of products, a proof of the law of conservation of mass.

Watch this video for a demonstration on the Law of Conservation of Mass

Summary

Practice

Use the link below to answer the following questions:

  1. If you want to say something about chemical reactions, what would you use?
  2. What does the Law of Conservation of Mass mean?
  3. How much oxygen gas would I need if I react six molecules of hydrogen?
  4. How many molecules of water would be formed?

Review

  1. State the Law of Conservation of Mass.
  2. What does this law mean?

Glossary

Law of Definite Proportions

Learning Objectives

State the law of definite proportions.

Examples

Electricity must be a certain voltage

We use electricity for many purposes, from cooking to powering our televisions to charging our cell phones. Wherever we travel in the United States, we want electricity to be available. What we also want (although we usually don’t think about it) is for the electricity supply to be the same wherever we go. We want the same voltage (110 volts for the U.S.) to come from the outlet to whatever we plug in. If the voltage is less, the system will not work. If it is more, the equipment will be damaged. We want a definite amount of voltage – no more and no less.

The discovery that mass was always conserved in chemical reactions was soon followed by the law of definite proportions , which states that a given chemical compound always contains the same elements in the exact same proportions by mass. As an example, any sample of pure water contains 11.19% hydrogen and 88.81% oxygen by mass. It does not matter where the sample of water came from or how it was prepared. Its composition, like that of every other compound, is fixed.

Another example is carbon dioxide. This gas is produced from a variety of reactions, often by the burning of materials. The structure of the gas consists of one atom of carbon and two atoms of oxygen. Carbon dioxide production is of interest in many areas, from the amount we breather out to the amount of the gas produced by burning wood or fossil fuels. By knowing the exact composition of carbon dioxide, we can make predictions as to the effects of different chemical processes.

Carbon dioxide is formed by burning wood

Figure 4. Carbon dioxide is produced during the burning process.

Summary

Practice

Watch the video and answer the questions:

  1. When was the law of definite proportions developed?
  2. Who proposed this law?
  3. How many hydrogen atoms are there in a molecule of water?
  4. How many oxygen atoms are there in a molecule of water?

Review

  1. State the law of definite proportions.
  2. Will the composition of water vary depending on its source?
  3. Why is this law important?

Glossary

law of definite proportions: States that a given chemical compound always contains the same elements in the exact same proportions by mass.

Law of Multiple Proportions

Learning Objectives

State the law of multiple proportions.

What are the similarities and differences between a unicycle and a bicycle?

Unicycles and bicycles have different numbers of wheels

Just from the words themselves, the astute Latin-speaking scholar can tell that, whatever it is made of, the unicycle has one of them ( uni = “one”) and the bicycle has two ( bi = “two”). From the picture to the right, we get additional information that helps us tell the two apart.

The unicycle has one wheel and the bicycle has two. In particular, they are made up of the same materials and the only significant difference is the number of wheels on the two vehicles.

Now: how many wheels on a tricycle?

Once the idea that elements combined in definite proportions to form compounds was established, experiments also began to demonstrate that the same pairs of certain elements could combine to form more than one compound. Consider the elements carbon and oxygen. Combined in one way, they form the familiar compound called carbon dioxide. In every sample of carbon dioxide, there is 32.0 g of oxygen present for every 12.0 g of carbon. By dividing 32.0 by 12.0, this simplifies to a mass ratio of oxygen to carbon of 2.66 to 1. There is another compound that forms from the combination of carbon and oxygen called carbon monoxide. Every sample of carbon monoxide contains 16.0 g of oxygen for every 12.0 g of carbon. This is a mass ratio of oxygen to carbon of 1.33 to 1. In the carbon dioxide, there is exactly twice as much oxygen present as there is in the carbon monoxide. This example illustrates the law of multiple proportions : Whenever the same two elements form more than one compound, the different masses of one element that combine with the same mass of the other element are in the ratio of small whole numbers.

Carbon can react with oxygen to form carbon monoxide or carbon dioxide

Figure 5. Carbon can form two different compounds with oxygen.

In carbon monoxide, on the left, there is 1.333 g of oxygen for every 1 g of carbon. In carbon dioxide, on the right, there is 2.666 g of oxygen for every gram of carbon. So the ratio of oxygen in the two compounds is 1:2, a small whole number ratio.

The difference between carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide is significant. Carbon monoxide is a deadly gas, formed from the incomplete combustion of some carbon-containing materials (such as wood and gasoline). This compound will attach to hemoglobin in the red blood cell and block the binding of oxygen to those cells. If oxygen does not bind, it cannot be carried to the cells of the body where it is needed and death can occur. Carbon dioxide, on the other hand, is not toxic like carbon monoxide is. However, it can displace oxygen in systems since it is heavier. Carbon dioxide fire extinguishers cut off the flow of oxygen in a fire, putting out the fire.

Summary

Practice

Watch the video at the link below or read the transcript and answer the following questions:

  1. What is the carbon:oxygen ratio in carbon monoxide?
  2. What is the carbon:oxygen ratio in carbon dioxide?
  3. What is the hydrogen:oxygen ratio in water?
  4. What is the hydrogen:oxygen ratio in hydrogen peroxide?

Review

  1. State the law of multiple proportions.
  2. In carbon dioxide, how many grams of oxygen would there be if there are 24 grams of carbon?
  3. How many grams of carbon would be present in carbon monoxide that contains 2.66 grams of oxygen?

Glossary

law of multiple proportions: Whenever the same two elements form more than one compound, the different masses of one element that combine with the same mass of the other element are in the ratio of small whole numbers.

Mass Ratio Calculation

Learning Objectives

What are the similarities and differences between these two equations?

Two reactions involving the same reactants but in different proportions

One of the fundamental laws of chemistry deals with the fact that we cannot (using chemical means) create or destroy matter. When a reaction is run, the number of atoms of each specific type must be the same on both sides of the equation. For some materials, it turns out that one element can combine with a second element in more than one ratio. Carrying out mass ratio calculations helped establish the law of multiple proportions.

Copper reacts with chlorine to form two compounds. Compound A consists of 4.08 g of copper for every 2.28 g of chlorine. Compound B consists of 7.53 g of copper for every 8.40 g of chlorine. What is the lowest whole number mass ratio of copper that combines with a given mass of chlorine?

Step 1: List the known quantities and plan the problem.

Apply the law of multiple proportions to the two compounds. For each compound, find the grams of copper that combine with 1.00 g of chlorine by dividing the mass of copper by the mass of chlorine. Then find the ratio of the masses of copper in the two compounds by dividing the larger value by the smaller value.

Step 2: Calculate

Compare the masses of copper per gram of chlorine in the two samples.

frac<1.79 text<g Cu (in compound A)></p>
<p>>>=frac=2:1

The mass ratio of copper per gram of chlorine in the two compounds is 2:1.

Step 3: Think about your result.

The ratio is a small whole-number ratio. For a given mass of chlorine, compound A contains twice the mass of copper as does compound B.

Summary

Practice

Use the link below to answer the following questions:

  1. What is the mass ratio?
  2. What is the hydrogen:water mass ratio?
  3. How many molecules of water per molecule of oxygen?

Review

  1. What does the mass ratio tell us?
  2. In the compound CH4, what is the carbon:hydrogen mass ratio?
  3. Methane is CH4 and ethane is C2H6. What is the mass ratio of carbon per gram of hydrogen in the two compounds?

Dalton’s Atomic Theory

Learning Objectives

List the components of Dalton’s atomic theory.

philosophers and Science

Crystals of copper chloride

Pick a little, talk a little, pick a little, talk a little,

Cheep cheep cheep, talk a lot, pick a little more

These lyrics from the musical “Music Man” summed up the way science was done for centuries. OK, the lyrics referred to a group of gossiping ladies, but the outcome was the same.

The Greek and Roman philosophers debated, discussed, and sometimes even attacked one another. But the mode of discovery was talk. There was no experimentation – the idea had not been thought of yet. So science did not develop very far and there was no reliable way to establish what was true and what was false.

John Dalton

Figure 7. Dalton.

While it must be assumed that many more scientists, philosophers and others studied the composition of matter after Democritus, a major leap forward in our understanding of the composition of matter took place in the 1800s with the work of the British scientist John Dalton. He started teaching school at age twelve, and was primarily known as a teacher. In his twenties, he moved to the growing city of Manchester, where he was able to pursue some scientific studies. His work in several areas of science brought him a number of honors. When he died, over 40,000 people in Manchester marched at his funeral.

Dalton studied the weights of various elements and compounds. He noticed that matter always combined in fixed ratios based on weight, or volume in the case of gases. Chemical compounds always contain the same proportion of elements by mass, regardless of amount, which provided further support for Proust’s law of definite proportions. Dalton also observed that there could be more than one combination of two elements.

Dalton’s Atomic Theory (1804)

From his experiments and observations, as well as the work from peers of his time, Dalton proposed a new theory of the atom. This later became known as Dalton’s atomic theory. The general tenets of this theory were as follows:

Dalton’s atomic theory has been largely accepted by the scientific community, with the exception of three changes. We know now that (1) an atom can be further sub-divided, (2) all atoms of an element are not identical in mass, and (3) using nuclear fission and fusion techniques, we can create or destroy atoms by changing them into other atoms.

Figure 8. Dalton’s symbols.

Summary